Oppression of Women in Muslim Countries: Eyes of Egypt

A dynamic view of issues in diversity through the lenses of History, Humanity, Social Science, and Natural Science

Written by Kayla Mann - February 21st, 2021

The oppression of women in Muslim countries has been a topic of discussion and prejudice for many years. When making multiple trips to Egypt, a Muslim country, I continually questioned the judgments I had heard to determine if they true. Were women really oppressed? Did they feel oppressed? Was Islam really the culprit of this oppression? We will explore this topic by analyzing through the perspectives of history, the social sciences, the humanities, and the natural sciences. When dealing with diversity issues, it is important to analyze them in an objective, scientific process that views multiple sides of the argument. What does oppression mean and how does it affect the development of a society? What are the repercussions to oppression and how might they advance or hinder a society?

Oppression is the “unjust or cruel exercise of authority or power” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary). Systemic oppression is systematic and has historical antecedents; it is the intentional disadvantaging of groups of people based on their identity while advantaging members of the dominant group (Lens of Systemic Oppression, n.d.). Oppression of women in Muslim countries, from personal observation, appears to have decreased economic growth, destabilized families (especially when the male head of household dies), has created unhealthy co-dependent relationships, decreased family educational and financial status, and has stalled the emotional growth of men. In other ways, the oppression of women has brought stability to the family such that confrontational conflict is avoided, decreased infidelity has been achieved, men & women stay married longer, families have less disrupting arguments and there is a strong reliance on the family/community.

The oppression of women in Muslim countries has a profound connection to history that may assist in decreasing bias against Islam as a religion. History may assist in understanding the culture and context in which it emerged. Islam has historically helped further women’s right’s (AlBader, 2020). We can see this when delving into the context surrounding its formation. Pre-Islamic society was guided by patriarchal tribal customs which allowed for wife beatings, pologymy, honor killings, and female genital mutilation (AlBader, 2020). Historically, it was the “perception that women were the property of men” and that “virginity belonged to the whole family” which continued on into the culture of Islam. In the development of Islam within this context, there “were improvements in women’s rights, including the restriction on the practice of polygamy” in which the pre-islamic society’s “tradition dictated that men could marry an unlimited number of wives” which Islam limited to only 4 (AlBader, 2020). In the era that Islam was introduced, it was rejected for being more progressive in woman’s rights than the traditions and customs that already existed at the time (AlBader, 2020).

In pre-Islamic history, wife beating was a common practice, one that would often result in injury (AlBader, 2020). Islam aimed to limit the violence that was culturally accepted at the time of its introduction. The words from very disputed verse 4:34 of the Quran which states you can only “beat a wife lightly”, may be looked at with a more positive view after delving into the history of pre-Islamic culture. With further research into the translations of the word “to beat” there are various different translations of the root word. Some of those translations are “strike/hit, bring forth, propound a similitude or example, make a journey/travel, avoid/shun, leave/forsake/separate, and condemn” (Qur’an Study, 2021, January 12). Cultural norms and patriarchy may have chosen the translations of this to fit their oppressive agenda. When looking through a historical lens, we can see that the cultural traditions that existed before Islam had an extreme impact on the integration of Islam in those societies.

“Throughout Islamic history the constructs, institutions and modes of thought devised by early Muslim societies that form the core discourses of Islam have played a central role in defining women’s place in Muslim socieites” (Ahmed, 1992). Gaining an understanding of the history before the development of Islam and the systematic oppression that women face in Muslim countries allows us to have a better understanding of the social dynamics that we currently see. Historically, women’s rights were limited in the societies surrounding the development of Islam. Men were allowed to marry an unlimited number of wives, in which Islam limited that number to four, a movement to increase women’s rights at the time (Albader, 2020). Islam also brought increased financial rights in which there are many religious doctrines surrounding the fair treatment of women to receive dowry payments, inheritances, and greater equality in the home. However, there are still many conflicting messages within the Quran that allow for the patriarchal culture to prevail over the spiritual teachings provided by the prophet Mohammed.

“Many of the social and legal practices perpetuating women's low status actually developed through the influence of social customs common in ancient and medieval times” (Esposito, 1975). Within the context and reality of people living in Muslim societies, along with the public impression of the divinity of the religion, it is unacceptable to acknowledge the distinction between the prior culture and the integration of the religion in society. “Once these customs infiltrated Islamic culture and then became accepted as norms, they were naturally identified with Islam” (Esposito, 1975). This is troubling in multiple ways for the advancement of women’s rights because deep internal conflict can result from challenging “God’s word” or the accepted structure of a religion. Something which people adhere to for their survival and understanding of both life and death.

Understanding this history and the culture surrounding the development of Islam can allow us to deepen our understanding of the progressiveness of the religion during this time period. We can decrease our biases towards the religion and understand that it has brought hope to many who follow it. We can also gain a better understanding of the impact that history inevitably has on all things, including religion.

Taking a look through the lens of the social sciences, social institutions have the most profound impact on the oppression of women in Muslim countries. The 7 major social institutions are family, education, religion, economy, work, government, and health care (Social Institutions, 2008). They are far more damaging than the influence of Islam, which, in context, has progressed women’s rights. Systemic oppression exists at the level of institutions (harmful policies and practices) and across structures that are interconnected and reinforcing over time (Lens of Systemic Oppression, n.d.). Family, government, laws, economics, and culture have held much more power over the oppression of women in Muslim countries.

In nearly all Muslim countries, there are restrictive laws in place that limit the equality of women within marriages. This inequality ranges through laws on juvenile marriage, inability to choose a non-muslim spouse, complete loss in custody of children in divorce, submission to polygymy, and legal death if a woman commits adultery. These customs are held and maintained by laws, family pride, prestige, male control of the family, and the overall suppression of female voices.

Multiple social institutions work together to prevent the disruption of male dominance and promote female submission. In many cases, especially in lower socio-economic statuses, women have been excluded from gaining a primary or secondary education, as it is inherently understood by male family leaders that education may “destabilize” the family. It may be seen as a threat if a woman grows in knowledge, she may begin to challenge men, gain employment to flee, or learn about social rights. Personal interviews and experiences with higher socio-economic status women prove just that--women are leaving their husbands, gaining employment & education, and we are seeing the first generations of women living independently.

An additional social institution that promotes oppression of women is the discouragement of women working, the difficulty of finding work, unequal pay and unfair treatment in their jobs. These barriers prevent women from being able to leave abusive homes. In Saudi Arabia and many other Muslim countries, women who flee domestic violence are sent back to the abusive family with no refuge. It was reported that many women would rather be put in jails than go back home. Life comes full circle, however, and the oppression of women decreases the financial stability of whole countries, violence creates war, and the fruits of abuse will affect both men & women.

When looking at the oppression of women in Muslim countries we see the most profound levels of systematic oppression. We see the greatest level of oppression for women within governmental laws, with multiple levels of patriarchal dominion, that limit the freedoms of women specifically. One of the most severe cultural practices maintained by law or the lack of laws incriminating executioners, is the practice of honor killings. “Honor killings are a cultural practice stemming from the need to maintain honor in patriarchal societies'' (AlBader, 2020). Many Muslim countries have loose or non existant laws punishing the act in which the perpetrator could receive a short time in jail, a fine, or the charge may be dropped down to a minor infraction, if the death was based on a wife, mother or daughter commiting adultery. These practices have gained the attention of the United Nations and the World Health Organization in which they have recognized honor killings as a violation of human rights (AlBader, 2020).

This practice in itself speaks volumes for the level of objectification that women face in these countries as their virginity is the prized sale and honor of the whole family. Women are fundamentally looked at as property to be possessed. Another issue is the practice of juvenile marriage as well as laws forbidding the freedom to choose a non-Muslim husband.

Juvenile marriages, the practice of forcing young girls under 18, including before puberty, into marriages with much older men, are typically arranged by fathers or male family members (Burn, 2011 as cited in Trott & Canetto, 2013). Financial reasons are often a justification for juvenile marriages and the customary “bride price” may be purchased for her labor and fertility (Trott & Canetto, 2013). Young women in poor communities “where girls and women are barred from education, paid labor, and/or inheritance --in other words where their education, employment and economic rights are also violated” are essentially sold into another family (Burn, 2011 as cited in Trott & Canetto, 2013).

Juvenile marriages also serve as a gridlock against obtaining education, work, and many other freedoms including voicing feelings, desires, wants and needs. All due to the intersecting and oppressive nature of these customs. Many of these women have also experienced female genitle mutilation which sometimes involves the narrowing of the vaginal opening (Trott & Canetto, 2013) which can be interpreted as a means to fulfil men’s lustful desires and their obsession with virginity. Genital mutilation of all types likely prevents women from the enjoyment of sex or clitoral orgasm which is consider “male and unclean.” Women in Muslim countries are socialized to promote “femininity and modesty”, to enforce women’s proper sexual behavior, and to secure their value in marriage (Trott & Canetto, 2013).

My Egyptian ex mother in law was likely placed in a juvenile marriage, as she bore her first child at age 15. She was from a small village town in “South Egypt” where traditional customs are commonplace. I was told She had no education and was unable to read. She has never worked outside the home, and her role is to cook, clean, and take care of her children, including into adulthood. The only sister of this family was excluded from gaining an education from college despite being very smart and having a desire to go to college. She was told that it might corrupt her and she was not allowed to pursue her aspirations. Her brothers, my ex-husband included, were allowed to go to college in which their father paid for with his meek income, yet my ex-husband squandered that opportunity by skipping class and playing video games. Now, after the father of the house has deceased, no one in the family is able to overcome poverty to be able to go to college. This is a minor glimpse into the injustice, inequality, and systematic oppression that women in Muslim countries face.

Another social institution that restricts women’s freedoms in Muslim countries is the intersection of family, religion and law which forbid a Muslim woman to marry a non-Muslim man, furthering the forces that bind and maintain these power structures. Muslim born women are by law not permitted to marry without the presence of a male family member and are not allowed to marry a non-Muslim. Women face many other oppressive structures within family and marriage laws. Women in Muslim countries face innumerable difficulties when wanting to divorce their husbands. First, it is highly frowned upon to leave a husband. Even in the face of domestic violence Muslim women are expected to stay with their husband. Next, women are not given custody of their children upon divorce in which the husband gains legal custody. Women have limited to no rights to their children without fighting in court which is a difficult feat when you have no education, no income, and limited opportunities for work. They are also unable to simply state they want to get divorced, which is a privilege given to men in which a man may simply state three times that he wants to divorce his wife and it is considered sanctified.

I discovered these atrocities upon much personal and legal research I conducted on Egyptian laws, as well as hearing first hand stories from my female Egyptian friends. Even the more privileged, educated women, such as two of my Egyptian friends, lost custody of their children, have extremely negative pressures from their families for divorcing, and will face a difficult battle to receive rights to their children. As well, one of my friends who divorced her husband has not been able to see her children for 5 years and will begin a custody trial soon. She told me she was lucky that he did not kill her after she cheated on her former husband. She told me this and I was astonished. I quickly began researching the topic of honor killings which lead me to write this paper. I questioned my ex-husband about this in which he told me this is what “the God” said was permissible. I of course debated the atrocious injustice of this in comparison with allowing men to marry multiple women. This is the scene of what systematic oppression looks like for women in Muslim countries. A picture & life that forces many women to stay in abusive marriages, become subject to polygmous marriages and risk the loss of their children if they do not comply with a quiet smile.

Women in Muslim countries are facing an intertwining and crippling disadvantage. They face oppression on a scale that is incomparable to any other sector in the world. The intersection of culture, religion, law, family, government, work, and education all serve as forces that prevent women’s social mobility. Interdisciplinary studies have important insights to contribute to understanding and preventing violations of women’s rights, and to help mobilize action on behalf of women’s rights from within and from outside the communities where these violations are perpetrated (Trott & Canetto, 2013). It is our hope that we can create a world where everyone can attain universal human rights and gain the freedoms that are their birthright.

Looking through the lens of the humanities we inquire into the way people experience their present, interact with their culture, and question their place in the universe” (The Four General Education Lenses, n.d.). How do women feel about their place in society? Ms. Mogahed, who was born in Egypt rejected the idea that Muslim women had been brainwashed by the dominant male culture (Andrews, 2006). Many women in Muslim countries believe they are obeying Allah’s commands and natural order, therefore having no awareness of oppression. (Allah directly translates to God in English, however, all translations of the Quran use Allah which looks like a name rather than the word God, which I believe increases bias among non-Muslims.) Women in Muslim countries do not see the hijab or modest dress as a means of oppression (Andrews, 2006), but rather as an act of worship and righteousness to God. From personal friendships with women from Egypt and online forums, I slowly began to learn, as I faced my own challenges within my relationship, that it is the culture that is said to be the true culprit of oppression. Marriage laws, honor killings and child custody laws, which are often blamed and connected to misrepresentations of Islam, are far more oppressive than the covering of the hair, neck, body, and face which is practiced in Islam. It seems clear that Muslim women find comfort and solace in their religious practices, prayers, and dress, which may strengthen the bond between believing they are obeying God by being submissive to men. Many have been conditioned to believe these behaviors are their religious duty, and have never known what is truly a violation of human rights, freedom of speech, and freedom of choice.

Men as well, have been conditioned to believe that Allah has decreed these cultural practices which are widely accepted as coming directly from the Quran. With a closer look, we discover that many scripts from the Quran are interpreted and the societies have formed their own laws based on those interpretations. In general, men and women are taught not to question anything from “the book.” Men, as well, have learned to enjoy the benefits of a male dominated society. Yet the fruits of the shadow of oppression towards women have shown in the economic instability produced in many Muslim societies. As well, the cast system that exists in Muslim countries is an aspect that effects men and women both.

One distinct feature of humanitarian question in regards to the oppression of women in Muslim countries is the aspect of veiling. In this analysis we will discuss this in the context as seen through social media and public display. Customarily, Muslim women are forbidden to allow people other than family or female friends to see under their veils. It is also customary not to take any photos of women for public display. This has contributed to the faceless Muslim woman on social media, in which their pictures are replaced with unaffiliated pictures, pictures of the husband, children, or male family members.

Through western eyes, this may appear to contribute to the exclusion of women’s visibility, independence and freedom. In many ways it has been a cultural and religious practice to prevent infidelity, jealousy, sexaul immorality, to maintain the idea of a woman as a man’s property (Albader, 2020), and may be seen as an oppressive cue. However, in one study it was found that Muslim women had a more positive trait body image than did Christian and atheist women with Muslim women reporting lower levels of thin-ideal internalization, pressure to be thin, and physical appearance in comparisons (Wilhelm, Hartmann, Becker, Kisi, Waldorf, & Vocks, 2019). This research shows that though this aspect of social expression may appear to be oppressive, to many Muslim women, it is viewed as a protective, helpful, and a positive result of religious practice.

Many non-Muslim people around the world hold views that Muslim women’s fully body dress and veiling is a form of subordination to men and oppressive in itself. However, Muslim women, when looking from inside the context of their religious duties, and not from the outside perspective, see the covering of the body from ankles to wrist, hair and neck as an act of worship for God and as righteous followers of the religion. Submission is seen as a righteous action in Islam. As Islam in translation means “to submit” and is derived from the Arabic word “salam” which means “peace” (Crescent Peace Society, n.d.). In Islam, submission of any kind is seen as worship to God.

The most frequent response to cross cultural questions such as, "What do you admire least about the West?" found responses about the general perception of moral decay, promiscuity and pornography that participants called the "Hollywood image" that is regarded as degrading to women (Andrews, 2006). These reports show us that women from Muslim communities have a much different perception than what outsiders assume. “When asked what they resented most about their own societies, a majority of Muslim women polled said that a lack of unity among Muslim nations, violent extremism, and political and economic corruption were their main concerns. The hijab, or head scarf, and burqa, the garment covering face and body, seen by some Westerners as tools of oppression, were never mentioned in the women's answers to the open-ended questions” (Andrews, 2006).

Discovering the views from women in Muslim countries shows us that the things we may assign as oppressive may actually be a source of dignity and strength. It is important to explore multiple perspectives when analysing topics of diversity to determine their theoretical conclusions. In some areas of this topic we find that women feel protected by their cultural & religious practices. In other areas, such as social laws, the oppressive dynamics are undeniable and equate to the definition of systematic oppression.

When looking at the oppression of women in Muslim countries through the lens of the natural sciences we can discover a new perspective that shines light onto the development of this issue. The biological differences between men and women are “extremely deep-rooted, having been passed down through the generations over thousands of years across many cultures” (Philpot, Brooks, Lusterman, & Nutt, 1997). These gender roles were produced and maintained over thousands of years, and only up until the most recent centuries have they begun to change. With any role of preponderance, the human instinct must resist the temptation towards abuse of power.

Biologically, men have larger builds, typically with greater upper body strength, and overall greater physical capacity. From the dawn of human evolution, men have used their strength to defend, protect, hunt, and build. “Over the centuries men have placed a high value on control, competition, reason, power over others, hierarchy, domination, autonomy, instrumentality, and the use of abstract rules to govern one’s life” (Philpot et al., 1997). In contrast, women typically have biologically smaller bodies, bear children, and were required to tend to the needs of their offspring. Over time women “came to be considered with lesser values: spontaneity, cooperation, compassion, emotion, affiliation, submission, nurturance, expressivity, and a pragmatic application of rules based on affiliative needs” (Philpot et al., 1997). These biological differences pathed the way for men to access and exercise power dominance over women due to the need for women to be provided for and protected. Over time these biological natures became socialized into gender roles, social norms, and even religious ideologies.

Next, we may also peer into the biology of sexual differences between men and women. When looking through evolutionary psychology, “this theory suggests that for the reproduction of the human race, men needed sexual access to many reproductively valuable women, whereas women needed men who could commit to the protection and nurturance of mother and children during their vulnerable years” (Philpot et al., 1997). Men have been biologically and socially conditioned to desire more sexual partners than women, and women have been biologically conditioned to need security, protection, and a provider for the family. Here we can see how biology influenced the pre-Islamic society which developed into the allowance of polygamy in Islam. Something that was only permitted by religious law with the responsibility of equally providing for each wife, a treatment that was much better than the previous society. As discussed earlier, Islam furthered women’s rights to ensure a moral duty for men to follow, promoting justice towards women. The Quran discourages multiple marriages if he might do so with injustice.

Another view from the scientific perspective is looking at the prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Africa in relation to Islam. A research study conducted by Peter Gray (2004) on 38 sub-Saharan Afriacan countries found that when the percentage of Muslims in a country went up, the prevalence of HIV went down. The study found that when 80-100% of the country was Muslim, the prevalence of HIV was less than 3%. This is a significant difference when comparing other African countries which have a 10-38% prevalence of HIV when the practice of Islam is 50% or less within that country.

“While Islamic marital codes permit men to marry as many as four wives and divorce relatively easily, potentially increasing the number of lifetime sexual partners—a known risk factor for acquiring HIV, prohibitions against sex outside of marriage may outweigh these risks” (Gray, 2004). The strict religious laws surrounding sexual morality, alcohol consumtion, cleanliness, circumcision, and homosexuality all serve as positive health outcomes. In this case, while looking through the lens of the natural sciences, we can see that the strict laws that affect women in Muslim countries do serve a higher purpose and have contributed to a decrease in disease transmission.

Critically analyszing the oppression of women in Muslim countries we must recognize that the formation of Islam and its implications on Muslim society has strongly been influenced by cultural context. We must educate ourselves by looking through the four lenses of history, humanities, social sciences, and the natural sciences to discover the roots of human behavior. As well, we must do our best to dismantle our biases to gain a better understanding and empathy for humanity in all its diverse forms.

Critically analyzing issues of diversity can assist in developing your personal and professional life. You can gain a new perspective, be able to respect people's differences, better understand how their personal life experiences have shaped them, have a greater awareness of the social institutions surrounding them, consider the society or social groups they are trying to fit into, have compassion for the injustices they have faced and become more aware of the rules & regulations they have encountered. All of which create the unique variety we see in the world. ​Having experience with many types of people allows us to find a common ground with a wider variety of people, enhancing our ability to communicate and interact. Having a broad variety of experiences and openness to diversity can assist in professional development. You will have a bigger view of the world, its people, and will more easily relate with co-workers or clients, as well as contribute to projects in a creative way.

Interacting with diverse people can be very challenging at times. We are often faced and challenged with differing viewpoints which may bring up difficult feelings such as anger, judgement, confusion, the inclination to want to fight back or stand up for our view points, or even label and stereotype people. These emotions may actually pull us into a feeling of not wanting to discover a different view. When we interact with diverse people we are often interrupted by things that we have been culturally taught are right or wrong and our emotions, past experiences, and traumas may be brought to the surface. In these times it may be difficult to take a step back, depending how close to home these feelings hit. We should attempt to separate the issue from the person or people and see them as two separate entities. This can help us to step out of our tunnel vision and into the big picture. From here we can depersonalize this experience in order to critically analyze the issue using multiple lenses. We should ask what the perspective would be with an understanding of history, the humanities, the social sciences, and the natural sciences. This will give us a better insight into the issues we encounter. ​

Gaining a better understanding of the factors that surround an issue will allow us to have a better understanding of the world and its people. The benefits to having diverse experiences are immense. We will inevitably gain a higher perspective of the world and its people by learning in this process. Diversity enhances self-awareness, social development, opens up multiple perspectives, deepens learning, and elevates thinking (Thompson & Cusseo, 2014). It assists in professional development and aids in creative expression. Diversity enriches the life experience by introducing new ideas, new ways of being, a chance to peer into a different way of life, the ability to see from a different perspective and to hopefully take a more balanced, non-judgmental view of people & events. Having diverse experiences increases self awareness "by allowing you to compare and contrast your life experiences with others whose life experiences differ sharply from your own'' (Thompson & Cusseo, 2014). Allowing yourself to invite diverse experiences into your life increases social development and the ability to interact and understand various types of people. It decreases ignorance and increases understanding within many topics, issues or debates.

Overall, understanding diversity and analyzing it critically can assist us in decreasing bias, increasing understanding, and help us move towards taking a kind, non-judgemental, and neutral attitude towards the differences in this world. I believe that this is the key to living in a more peaceful world and we must do our part by teaching people to look at issues through the four lenses. We should critically and fairly analyze topics of diversity by looking through history, humanity, social science, and natural science. ​

References

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