Childhood Experiences Shaping Personality
Kayla Mann
Southern New Hampshire University
Literature Review
The journal articles that were reviewed investigated the relationship between childhood experiences and personality development. The articles researched birth order, attachment theory, the five factor personality traits, shared environmental factors, and trauma by a primary caregiver. The reviewed research confirms that childhood experiences do have an effect on personality in adulthood and throughout life. Each of the articles shows that social factors played a major role in personality development from the early attachment from caregivers to the shared environments in adolescence. Various social factors influence personality due to the meaning of “childhood experiences” rather than biologically inherited personality traits.
The first study that was reviewed looked at the effects of birth order on personality and the author hypothesized that first born children were higher achieving and later born children were more rebellious and liberal (Paulhus et al., 1999). The research confirmed these hypotheses with four studies which each built on the limitations of the previous study. The studies were conducted using a correlational approach in which in-class questions and take home family questionnaires were used. The historical view on this subject has changed due to this research. Published arguments by Ernst and Angst in 1983 found that there were no significant correlation between birth order and personality. It was previously found that "small effects on intellectual achievement" could be noted, however, not significantly proved (Palhus et al., 1999). The viewpoint of this article argues against Ernst and Angst's belief that birth order has no effect on personality. This article agrees and shows empirical evidence that achievement can be linked to birth order. Ethical standards were not pronounced in this research, however the developments of ethics in personality research continue to grow in order to keep participants safe and informed.
Next, a study on attachment was conducted to provide empirical evidence that the psychodynamic approach supports attachment theory (Shaver & Mikulincer, 2004). The authors describe how attachment theory has an effect on human personality and behavior. The article hypothesized that psychological defenses are present and begin in early childhood experiences. These factors were assessed and measured by many different studies that were conducted in the laboratory. The researchers gave participants various questions, words and ideas that would invoke a response that triggered fears associated with attachment. Next, the researchers measured different physical responses such as heightened access to words associated with attachment, intrusive thoughts, physiological responses, and ability to perform tasks after presented with a specific attachment related scenario.
The greatest historical significance that is related to this article are the theories posed by Sigmund Freud, which the authors state, have recently declined due to newer theories in psychology. This article agrees with the psychodynamic approach of Freud and Bowlby who both believed that early childhood experiences shape later personality development. An ethical consideration present in this study was that some of the information was hidden from the participants. Ethics in personality psychology have changed over the years by formal requirements and accountability in all research studies.
Next, an article on attachment theory and the five factor model of personality was reviewed. The researchers hypothesized that secure attachment is associated with higher levels of extroversion, agreeableness, openness to experience and conscientiousness (Fransson et al., 2012). The authors also hypothesized that secure attachment would be negatively correlated with neuroticism. This article looks at personality development through a longitudinal study of middle childhood and young adulthood and gives evidence of correlations between traits from the Five Factor Model. The variables that were being looked at were the Five Factors of agreeableness, openness to experience, extroversion, conscientiousness & neuroticism and secure, avoidant, anxious, & unorganized/disorganized attachment. The Five Factors were measured using questionnaires given to teachers and mothers of the younger participants. Attachment was measured using the Separation Anxiety Test and Adult Attachment Interview which were completed through interviews.
This article agrees with previous historical attachment theory variables and adds additional variables to be studied, as well as to be studied longitudinally from middle childhood to young adulthood. I believe this research was conducted ethically because confidentiality was explained to the participants and their families. The children were present with their mothers and compensation was given for participation in the study. Ethics has changed over the years to include informed consent and details about the research.
The next article review was on shared environmental experiences in childhood and adolescence (Burt, 2009). This research looked at the differences between shared experiences versus different experiences between siblings in childhood. The research used a meta-analysis and reviewed 490 research studies that looked at DSM-5 diagnoses in people younger than 18 years old. The research aimed to show the importance of shared childhood experiences on personality. It is historically accepted that there are major correlational implications between different childhood experiences between siblings however this research aimed to look at the importance of shared environmental experiences on personality. Ethics in a case study meta analysis would be considered independently in each research study that was reviewed.
The last study that was reviewed was a study on the association of childhood trauma by a primary caregiver and affect dysregulation with borderline personality disorder (BPD) in adulthood (Dijke et al., 2012). Participants were interviewed by trained clinicians in nine areas associated with BPD, and with self report questionnaires for under/overregulation of affect, for inclusion into the study. Using both inclusion criteria questionnaires and additional questionnaires, the data on participants were correlated with trauma by a primary caregiver. The study was approved by the local ethics committee in the Netherlands and description of the study was given to participants before they signed consent forms (Dijke et al., 2012).
Although the results imply that both trauma by primary caregiver (TPC) and underregulation of affect warrant attention in assessment, treatment, and research on BPD, they do not rule out the possibility that other factors not assessed in this study may contribute to BPD (e.g., parental psychopathology, other forms of childhood psychological trauma, and genetic factors), or rather than being independent factors, some of these factors might be highly related to TPC (e.g., parental psychopathology) and explain some of the associations observed (Dijke,2012).
After reviewing the five articles on childhood experiences and their relation to personality development, I wanted to study the under researched area of inherited trauma. After reading the last article on borderline personality disorder, I wanted to design a research study to look at the instances of borderline personality disorder with adults who did not have trauma histories. I also wanted to find out if the parents of the adult children with borderline personality disorder had trauma histories and if those could have been passed down through untreated mental health disorders affecting childhood experiences. The further discussion will explain the research design proposed to study this research gap.
Hypothetical Research Design
My research question for the new study is: could people with borderline personality disorder, who have no known childhood trauma history, have inherited trauma from parents? I have chosen to use a correlational research study using questionnaires with a select population. I believe questionnaires are appropriate versus diagnostic interviews due to the sensitive information being studied. According to Burt (2009), questionnaires are typically dimensional instruments (i.e., items assess both normal and abnormal permutations of behavior). Participants may be more willing to disclose sensitive personal information through questionnaires rather than by verbal interviews. “Questionnaires also generally include a forced-choice response that could increase reliability” (Burt, 2009). In contrast, with interviews or case studies there is a potential for vague descriptions, interviewer bias, and difficulty organizing variables.
In this research design I will use the specific DSM-5 diagnosis of borderline personality disorder for measuring adult personality dysfunction. General descriptions of dysfunction such as, “relationship problems, anxiety, depression, and addiction,” are all characteristics of BPD. I have also added a specific criteria for participants which include: primary participants with a diagnosis of BPD who have both parents willing to participate in the study. Primary participants must have no known childhood verbal or sexual abuse. Selection of participants will be difficult to rule out and will need to be selected throughout the United States to fit the qualifying criteria. It will be difficult to account for potential hidden trauma of primary or secondary participants. It also may be difficult to rule out adult traumas of primary participants that could account for the presence of BPD in adulthood. Questionnaires will be tailored to assess potential for secondary participants’ mental health or trauma history, including information about the secondary participants’ immediate family members. Trauma indicators for primary and secondary participants will need to be clearly defined prior to beginning the study. This research aims to discover more about the causes of BPD in participants with no known trauma history in childhood.
The research design will be implemented by selecting inclusion criteria primary & secondary participants, administering explanation of the study, detailed information about confidentiality, payment for participation, completion of questionnaires, and correlation of the data. Data will be analyzed to determine if there is a positive correlation between parents who have known trauma/abuse and adult children with BPD that have no childhood trauma history.
I will account for ethical considerations by giving potential participants full disclosure on the sensitive information that will be questioned and necessary to conduct the study. Participants will have all information completely confidential, even from other family members. Only data will be used and all personal information will be confidential in reports on the results.
Psychological research on the development of personality is a valuable tool in finding new therapy interventions. When empirical evidence is found to confirm a proposed theory, new developments can be made and understood in order to facilitate personal growth. Facilitation of individual growth can contribute to overall healthier societies. Students and clinicians continue to benefit from the continued search for research gaps and empirical evidence.
References
Burt, S. Alexandra. (2009). Rethinking environmental contributions to child and adolescent psychopathology: a meta-analysis of shared environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 608-637. https://web-b-ebscohost-com.ezproxy.snhu.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=3&sid=625dea15-58b5-4bc1-8d34-c323faf8d0c4%40sessionmgr102&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=2009-09537-006&db=pdh
Dijke, A., Ford, J., Son, M., Frank, L., Hart, O. (2012). Association of childhood-trauma-by-primary caregivers and affect dysregulation with borderline personality disorder symptoms in adulthood. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy 2013, Vol. 5(No. 3), 217-224.
Fransson, Mari; Granqvist, Pehr; Bohlin, Gunilla; Hagekull, Berit (2012). Interlinkages between attachment and the five factor model of personality in middle childhood and young adulthood: a longitudinal approach. Attachment & Human Development, Vol. 15(No. 2), 219-239.
Paulhus, Delroy L., Trapnell, Paul D., Chen, David (1999). Birth order effects on personality and achievement within families. Psychological Science, Vol. 10(No. 6), 482-488.
Shaver, Philip R., Mikulincer, Mario (2004). Attachment theory and research: resurrection of the psychodynamic approach to personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 39, 22-45.